The Esperanto Teacher: A Simple Course for Non-Grammarians

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Esperanto Teacher: A Simple Course for Non-Grammarians This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org . If you are not located in the United States, you’ll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title : The Esperanto Teacher: A Simple Course for Non-Grammarians Author : Helen Fryer Editor : Edward A. Millidge Release date : May 1, 2005 [eBook #8177] Most recently updated: September 18, 2014 Language : English, Esperanto Credits : Produced by David Starner, Tiffany Vergon, William Patterson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ESPERANTO TEACHER: A SIMPLE COURSE FOR NON-GRAMMARIANS *** THE ESPERANTO TEACHER, A SIMPLE COURSE FOR NON-GRAMMARIANS. BY HELEN FRYER. TENTH EDITION. (B.E.A. PUBLICATIONS FUND—N o . 3). All profits from the sale of this book are devoted to the propaganda of Esperanto. LONDON: BRITISH ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION ( Incorporated ), 17, Hart Street, W.C.i. PRESENTATION. Perhaps to no one is Esperanto of more service than to the non-grammarian. It gives him for a minimum expenditure of time and money a valuable insight into the principles of grammar and the meaning of words, while enabling him, after only a few months of study, to get into communication with his fellow men in all parts of the world. To place these advantages within easy reach of all is the aim of this little book. Written by an experienced teacher, revised by Mr. E. A. Millidge, and based on the exercises of Dr. Zamenhof himself, it merits the fullest confidence of the student, and may be heartily commended to all into whose hands it may come. W. W. Padfield. PREFACE. This little book has been prepared in the hope of helping those who, having forgotten the lessons in grammar which they received at school, find some difficulty in learning Esperanto from the existing textbooks. It is hoped it will be found useful not only for solitary students, but also for class work. The exercises are taken chiefly from the "Ekzercaro" of Dr. Zamenhof. The compiler also acknowledges her indebtedness especially to the "Standard Course of Esperanto," by Mr. G. W. Bullen, and to the "Esperanto Grammar and Commentary," by Major-General Geo. Cox, and while accepting the whole responsibility for all inaccuracies and crudenesses, she desires to thank all who have helped in the preparation, and foremost among them Mr. W. W. Padfield, of Ipswich, for advice and encouragement throughout the work, and to Mr. E. A. Millidge, for his unfailing kindness and invaluable counsel and help in its preparation and revision. MANNER OF USING THE BOOK. The student is strongly advised to cultivate the habit of thinking in Esperanto from the very beginning of the study. To do this he should try to realise the idea mentally without putting it into English words, e.g. , when learning the word "rozo" or "kolombo," let him bring the object itself before his mind's eye, instead of repeating " rozo , rose; kolombo , pigeon"; or with the sentence " la suno brilas , the sun shines," let him picture the sun shining. Having studied the lesson and learned the vocabulary, he should read the exercise, repeating each sentence aloud until he has become familiar with it and can pronounce it freely. Then turning to the English translation at the end of the book, he should write the exercise into Esperanto, compare it with the original, and re-learn and re-write if necessary. Although this method may require a little more time and trouble at first, the greater facility gained in speaking the language will well repay the outlay. After mastering this book the student should take some reader, such as "Unua Legolibro," by Dr. Kabe, and then proceed to the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," the standard work on Esperanto, by Dr. Zamenhof. A very good Esperanto-English vocabulary is to be found in the "Esperanto Key," ½d., or in "The Whole of Esperanto for a Penny." THE ORIGIN AND AIM OF ESPERANTO. A few words as to the origin of Esperanto will perhaps not be out of place here. The author of the language, Dr. Ludovic Zamenhof, a Polish Jew, was born on December 3rd, 1859, at Bielovstok, in Poland, a town whose inhabitants are of four distinct races, Poles, Russians, Germans, and Jews, each with their own language and customs, and often at open enmity with each other. Taught at home that all men are brethren, Zamenhof found everywhere around him outside the denial of this teaching, and even as a child came to the conclusion that the races hated, because they could not understand, each other. Feeling keenly, too, the disabilities under which his people specially laboured, being cut off by their language from the people among whom they lived, while too proud to learn the language of their persecutors, he set himself to invent a language which should be neutral and therefore not require any sacrifice of pride on the part of any race. Interesting as is the story of Zamenhof's attempts and difficulties, it must suffice here to say that at the end of 1878 the new language was sufficiently advanced for him to impart it to schoolfellows like-minded with himself, and on December 17th of that year they fêted its birth, and sang a hymn in the new language, celebrating the reign of unity and peace which should be brought about by its means, "All mankind must be united in one family." But the enthusiasm of its first followers died down under the derision they encountered, and for nine years more Zamenhof worked in secret at his language, translating, composing, writing original articles, improving, polishing, till in 1887 he published his first book under the title of "An International Language by Dr. Esperanto." ( Esperanto means one who hopes ). That the idea which impelled the young Zamenhof to undertake such a work is still the mainspring of his devotion to the cause is shown by the following extract from his opening speech at the second International Esperanto Congress in 1906:—"We are all conscious that it is not the thought of its practical utility which inspires us to work for Esperanto, but only the thought of the important and holy idea which underlies an international language. This idea, you all know, is that of brotherhood and justice among all peoples ." And, again, in his presidential address at the third Esperanto Congress, held this year (1907) at Cambridge, he said, "We are constantly repeating that we do not wish to interfere in the internal life of the nations, but only to build a bridge between the peoples. The ideal aim of Esperantists, never until now exactly formulated, but always clearly felt, is: To establish a neutral foundation, on which the various races of mankind may hold peaceful, brotherly intercourse, without intruding on each other their racial differences ." Sur neŭtrala lingva fundamento, Komprenante unu la alian, La popoloj faros en konsento Unu grandan rondon familian. (On the foundation of a neutral language, Understanding one another, The peoples will form in agreement One great family circle). Helen Fryer. December , 1907. THE ALPHABET. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. In Esperanto each letter has only one sound, and each sound is represented in only one way. The words are pronounced exactly as spelt, every letter being sounded. Those consonants which in English have one simple sound only are exactly the same in Esperanto; they are— b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, t, v, z ( r must be well rolled). q, w, x, y are not used. c, g, h, s , which in English represent more than one sound, and j are also used with the mark ˆ— c ĉ, g ĝ, h ĥ, j ĵ, s ŝ. c (whose two English sounds are represented by k and s ) has the sound of ts , as in i ts , ts ar. ĉ like ch , tch , in ch ur ch , ma tch . g hard, as in g o, g i g , g un. ĝ soft, as in g entle, g em, or like j in j ust, J ew. h well breathed, as in h orse, h ome, h ow. ĥ strongly breathed, and in the throat, as in the Scotch word lo ch . (Ask any Scotsman to pronounce it). ĥ occurs but seldom. It is the Irish gh in lou gh , and the Welsh ch . j like y in yes, you , or j in hallelujah, fjord. ĵ like s in pleasure, or the French j , as in dejeuner, Jean d'Arc. s like ss in a ss , le ss , never like s in ro s e. ŝ like sh in sh e, sh all, sh ip, or s in s ugar, s ure. In newspapers, etc., which have not the proper type, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ are often replaced by ch, gh, hh, jh, sh , or by c', g', h', j', s' , and ŭ by u . ŭ is also a consonant, and has the sound of w in we , as Eŭropo , or u in persuade . The vowels a, e, i, o, u have not the English, but the Continental sounds. a always like a in a h! or in t a rt. e like e in b e nd, but broader, like e in th e re. i is a sound between ee in m ee t and i in i s. o like o in f o r, or in the Scottish no , or au in au ght. u like oo in b oo t, p oo r. a, e, i, o, u are all simple sounds, that is, the mouth is kept in one position while they are being sounded. In learning them lengthen them out, and be careful not to alter the position of the mouth, however long they are drawn out. In the compound sounds given below the shape of the mouth changes; to get the correct pronunciation sound each letter fully and distinctly, gradually bringing them closer until they run together, when they become almost as follows:— aj nearly like ai in ai sle, or i in n i ce, f i ne. ej nearly like ei in v ei n. oj nearly like oy in b oy , or oi in v oi d. uj nearly like uj in hallel uj ah. aŭ like ahw , or nearly ou in h ou se, pronounced broadly, ha ou se. eŭ like ehw , or ey w in th ey w ere, ayw in w ayw ard. Practise saying aja, eja, oja, uja, aŭa, eŭa several times quickly. Then gradually drop the final a . Accent. The accent or stress is always placed on the syllable before the last, as es- pe -ro, es-pe- ran -to, es-pe-ran- tis -to, es-pe-ran-tis- ti -no; ju -na, ju- nu -lo, ju-nu- la -ro. All the syllables must be clearly pronounced, not slurred over. Exercise in Pronounciation. a (as in b a th), pat -ra, la -na, a- gra -bla, mal- var -ma, kla -ra, pa- fa -do. e (as in b e nd), be -la, m e m, fe- nes -tro, ven- dre -do, tre- e -ge, le- te -ro. i (as in s ee ), mi, i -li, i- mi -ti, vi- zi -ti, trin -ki, in- sis -ti. o (as in f o r), ho -mo, ro -zo, ko- lom -bo, dor -mo (the r rolled), mor -to, po- po -lo. u (as in b oo t), u -nu, dum, bru -lu, sur- tu -to, vul- tu -ro, mur- mur -i. aj (as in n i ce), ajn, kaj, r aj -to, taj- lo -ro, faj -ro, be -laj. ej (as in pl ay ), vej -no, hej -mo, plej, hej -to. oj (as in b oy ), pat -roj, foj -no, ho -mojn, koj -no, soj -lo, kon -koj. uj (as in hallel uj ah), tuj, ĉi -uj, ti -uj. aŭ (as in c ow ), an -taŭ, laŭ -bo, fraŭ- li -no, kaŭ -zi, aŭs- kul -tu, aŭ -di. eŭ (like ehw), Eŭ- ro -po, neŭ-ral- gi -o, Eŭ-kar- is -to, reŭ-ma- tis -mo. c (= ts, bi ts ), ce -lo, fa- ci -la (= fa-tsee-la ), be- le -co ( be-le-tso ), ofi- ci -ro, pa -co, ci-ko- ni -o, co -lo. ĉ (= tch, ma tch ), ĉu, eĉ, ĉe, ĉam -bro, ĉer -pi, tran -ĉi, ri -ĉa. g (as in g ood), lon -ga, le -gi, ge- nu -o, gen -to, gli -ti, gro -so. ĝ (as in g em), ĝe -mi, ĝis, ĝar- de -no, sa -ĝa, man -ĝi, re -ĝo. h (breathed), ha -ro, hi- run -do, ha- rin -go, his-to- ri -o, he- de -ro, him -no. ĥ (in throat), ĥe- mi -o, ĥo- le -ro, me-ĥa- ni -ko, e -ĥo, ĥa- o -so. j (like y), ju -na, ma- jes -ta, sin- jo -ro, ka- je -ro, jes, ja. ĵ (= zh), bon- aĵ -o, ĵe -ti, ĵur- na -lo, ĵus, ĵaŭ -do, ĵa- lu -zo. s (ss), su -per, ses, sta -ri, trans, ves- pe -ro, svin -gi. ŝ (sh), fre -ŝa, ŝe -lo, ku -ŝi, ŝtu -po, ŝvi -ti, ŝve -li. kz , ek- zer -co, ek- zem -plo, ek-za- me -no, ek-ze- ku -ti, ek- zi -li, ek- zis -ti. kv , kvar, kvin, kvi- e -ta, kvan -kam, kver -ko, kva -zaŭ. gv , gvi -di, lin -gvo. kn , kna -bo, kne -di. sc (sts), sci -o (sts-ee-o), sce -no (stse-no), scep -tro, eks- ci -ti (eks- tsee -tee), eks-cel- en -co (eks-tsel- en -tso), sci- en -co (stsee-en-tso). cen -to, sen -to; ce -lo, se -lo, ŝe -lo; co -lo, ko -lo; ci, ĉi; ec, eĉ; kru -co, kru -ĉo; pa -go, pa -ĝo; re -gi, re -ĝi; se -gi, se -ĝo; ho -ro, ĥo -ro; pe -si, pe -zi; ste -lo, ŝte -lo; san -go, ŝan -go; ver -so, ver -ŝi; dis- i -ri, dis- ŝi -ri; gus -ta, ĝus -ta; stu -po, ŝtu -po; sta -lo, ŝta -lo; pos -to, poŝ -to; re- ser -vi, re- zer -vi; ru- ĝi -gi, ru- ĉi -ĝi; ri- ĉi -gi, ri- ĉi -ĝi, ri- ĉe -co; fti -zo. a- e -ro, oce- a -no, fe- i -no, ĝu -i, pe- re -i, pe- re -u; fo- i -ro, ĉi -u- ja -ra, vo -joj, tro- u -zi, for- ram -pi, ku- i -ri; skva -mo, zo-o-lo- gi -o, en- u -i, de- tru -u, ŝpru -ci, ru- i -ni; Jan-u- a -ro, Feb-ru- a -ro, li- e -no, ho- di -aŭ, hi- e -raŭ, Hun-gár- u -jo, Ne-a- po -lo, sci- u -ro. Note. —A useful mnemonic for the Esperanto vowels is p a r, p ea r, p ie r, p or e, p oo r, but the sounds should not be dragged. It is helpful to note that the English words mate, reign, pane, bend; meet, beat, feel, lady; grow, loan, soft; mute, yes, mule (as pronounced in London and South of England), would be written in Esperanto thus:— mejt, rejn, pejn, bend; mijt, bijt, fijl, lejdi; groŭ, loŭn, soft; mjut, jes, mjul . LESSON 1. Words. In Esperanto a word generally consists of an unchanging part or root, which expresses the idea, and an ending which shows the use of the word, that is, whether it is a name, a describing word, etc. By changing the ending the use of the word is changed. Notice carefully the words given below which end in o. It will be seen that they are all names. In Esperanto every name ends in o. ( In Grammar names are called Nouns ). Notice further the words which end in -as. They all express doing or being (action or state), which is going on at the present time, or which is a custom at the present time. The words "a," "an," are not expressed; "the" is translated by la . Vocabulary. p a tro , father. fr a to , brother. f i lo , son. Teod o ro ,Theodore. tajl o ro , tailor. le o no , lion. b e sto , animal. kol o mbo , pigeon. b i rdo , bird. r o zo , rose. fl o ro , flower. p o mo , apple. s u no , sun. t e ro , earth, ground. ŝt o no , stone. ĉ a mbro , room. fen e stro , window. l i bro , book. kraj o no , pencil. pl u mo , pen. ĉap e lo , hat. d o mo , house. a rbo , tree. e stas , is, are, am. apart e nas , belongs. br i las , shines. k u ŝas , lies. st a ras , stands. la , the. kaj , and. jes , yes. ne , no, not. al , to, towards. sur , on. en , in. a pud , by, near, beside. de , of, from. k i e , where. k i o , what thing. jen e stas , here is. ĉu , whether (asks a question). a ntaŭ , before, in front of. ( The black type shows the accented syllable ). Patro kaj frato. Leono estas besto. Rozo estas floro kaj kolombo estas birdo. La rozo apartenas al Teodoro. La suno brilas. La patro estas tajloro. Kie estas la libro kaj la krajono? Jen estas pomo. Sur la tero kuŝas ŝtono. Sur la fenestro kuŝas krajono kaj plumo. La filo staras apud la patro. Jen kuŝas la ĉapelo de la patro. La patro estas en la ĉambro. Antaŭ la domo staras arbo. Kio estas leono? Kio estas rozo? Kio brilas? Kio estas la patro? Kie estas la patro? Kio estas sur la fenestro? Kie estas la plumo? Ĉu leono estas besto? Jes, leono estas besto. Ĉu rozo estas birdo? Ne, rozo ne estas birdo, rozo estas floro. LESSON 2. Every "describing" word, that is, every word which tells the kind or quality of a person or thing, ends in " a ," as granda , large; ruĝa , red. ( A describing word is called an ADJECTIVE). Vocabulary. b e la , beautiful. bl a nka , white. bl u a , blue. b o na , good. fid e la , faithful. f o rta , strong. fr e ŝa , fresh. j u na , young. mat u ra , mature, ripe. n o va , new. n u tra , nutritious. p u ra , pure, clean. r i ĉa , rich. s a na , well (healthy). ĉi e lo , sky, heaven. f e sto , holiday. fraŭl i no , maiden lady, Miss h o mo , man (human being). h u ndo , dog. inf a no , child. Joh a no , John. kaj e ro , exercise book. l a kto , milk. m a no , hand. n e ĝo , snow. p a no , bread. pap e ro , paper. t a blo , table. v i no , wine. o nklo , uncle. pli , more. ol , than. sed , but. tre , very. La patro estas sana. Infano ne estas matura homo. La ĉielo estas blua. Leono estas forta. La patro estas bona. La mano de Johano estas pura. Papero estas blanka. Blanka papero kuŝas sur la tablo. Jen estas la kajero de la juna fraŭlino. Sur la ĉielo staras la bela suno. La papero estas tre blanka, sed la neĝo estas pli blanka. Lakto estas pli nutra, ol vino. La pano estas freŝa. La onklo estas pli riĉa, ol la frato. Jen kuŝas ruĝa rozo. La hundo estas tre fidela. La libro estas nova. LESSON 3. When the name (noun) is required to denote more than one of the persons or things for which it stands, j is added to it, as rozoj , roses; kolomboj , pigeons; and then every "describing" word (adjective) which belongs to it must also have j , as ruĝaj rozoj , red roses; la kolomboj estas belaj , the pigeons are beautiful. (When the noun stands for "more than one," it is said to be plural . j is the sign of the plural). Vocabulary. j a ro , year. k a nto , song. kn a bo , boy. lil i o , lily. tranĉ i lo , knife. dento , tooth. agr a bla , agreeable, pleasant. a kra , sharp. delik a ta , delicate. fl u gas , fly, flies. diligenta , diligent. l u ndo , Monday. m a rdo , Tuesday. merkr e do , Wednesday. ĵ aŭ do , Thursday. vendr e do , Friday. sab a to , Saturday. dim a nĉo , Sunday. La birdoj flugas. La kanto de la birdoj estas agrabla. Kie estas la knaboj? La patroj estas sanaj. Infanoj ne estas maturaj homoj. Leonoj estas fortaj. La manoj de Johano estas puraj. Jen estas la kajeroj de la junaj fraŭlinoj. La onkloj estas pli riĉaj, ol la fratoj. La hundoj estas tre fidelaj. Blankaj paperoj kuŝas sur la tablo. En la ĉambro estas novaj ĉapeloj. Kie estas la akraj tranĉiloj? Bonaj infanoj estas diligentaj. Jen kuŝas puraj, blankaj, delikataj lilioj. La dentoj de leonoj estas akraj. LESSON 4. mi , I. ci , thou. li , he. ŝi , she. ĝi , it ni , we. vi , you. ili , they. si , (see Lesson 7). oni , one, they, people. ( The above words are called Pronouns because they are used instead of repeating the noun ). By adding a the pronouns are made to denote a quality, in this case possession, as mia libro , my book; via pomo , your apple; ilia infano , their child. mia , my, mine. cia , thy, thine. lia , his. ŝia , her, hers. ĝia , its. nia , our, ours. via , your, yours, ilia , their, theirs. sia (see Lesson 7), When the name to which these "pronoun-adjectives" belong is plural they must of course take j , as miaj libroj , my books; viaj pomoj , your apples; iliaj infanoj , their children. In speaking of relations and parts of the body la is often used instead of mia , lia , etc., as La filo staras apud la patro , The son stands by the (his) father. For "mine," "ours," etc., mia , nia , etc., may be used either with or without la , as La libro estas mia , or La libro estas la mia , The book is mine. Oni is used for one, they, people , when these words are indefinite in meaning, as in the sentences:—Here one can speak fearlessly, Tie ĉi oni povas maltime paroli , They say that he is rich, Oni diras, ke li estas riĉa , People often eat too quickly, Oni ofte manĝas tro rapide. Vocabulary. a vo , grandfather. am i ko , friend. ĝard e no , garden knab i no , girl. r u so , Russian. sinj o ro , gentleman, Mr., Sir. v e ro , truth. v e nas , comes. i ras , goes. l e gas , reads. skr i bas , writes. pl o ras , cry, cries. v o las , wills, wishes. d i ras , says. s i das , sits. v e nkas , conquers. m a nĝi , to eat. ĝent i la , polite. sil e nte , silently. k i u , who, which (that). ĉ i u , each one, every. ĉ i uj , all, all the. la plej , the most. t i el , as, so. k i el , as. nun , now. a nkaŭ , also. ĉ i am , always. el , out of. ĉar , because, for. Mi legas. Vi skribas. Li estas knabo, kaj ŝi estas knabino. Ni estas homoj. Vi estas infanoj. Ili estas rusoj. Kie estas la knaboj? Ili estas en la ĝardeno, Kie estas la knabinoj? Ili ankaŭ estas en la ĝardeno. Kie estas la tranĉiloj? Ili kuŝas sur la tablo. La infano ploras, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi. Sinjoro, vi estas neĝentila. Sinjoroj, vi estas neĝentilaj. Oni diras; ke la vero ĉiam venkas. La domo apartenas al li. Mi venas de la avo, kaj mi iras nun al la onklo. Mi estas tiel forta, kiel vi. Nun mi legas, vi legas, kaj li legas, ni ĉiuj legas. Vi skribas, kaj la infanoj skribas, ili (vi) ĉiuj sidas silente kaj skribas. Mia hundo, vi estas tre fidela. Li estas mia onklo, ĉar mia patro estas lia frato. El ĉiuj miaj infanoj, Ernesto estas la plej juna. Lia patro kaj liaj fratoj estas en la ĝardeno. ŝia onklo estas en la domo. Kie estas viaj libroj? Niaj libroj kuŝas sur la tablo; iliaj krajonoj kaj ilia papero ankaŭ kuŝas sur la tablo. Kiu estas en la ĉambro? Kiuj estas en la ĉambro? La sinjoro, kiu legas, estas mia amiko. La sinjoro, al kiu vi skribas, estas tajloro. Kio kuŝas sur la tablo? LESSON 5. The use of final n . In order to understand the meaning of a sentence it is necessary to be able to recognise clearly and unmistakably what it is that is spoken about, that is, what the subject of the sentence is. In English this is often to be recognised only by its position in the sentence. For instance, the three words—visited, John, George, can be arranged to mean two entirely, different things, either "John visited George," or "George visited John." [Footnote: In teaching Esperanto to children it is well to make sure before going further that they thoroughly understand, what the subject is. The subject is that which we think or speak about. The word which stands for it is the subject of the sentence . The children may be required to underline the subject of each sentence in a suitable piece of prose or verse.] In Esperanto the sense does not depend on the arrangement—" Johano vizitis Georgon " and " Georgon vizitis Johano " mean exactly the same thing, that John visited George, the n at the end of "Georgon" showing that "Georgon" is not the subject. There is no want of clearness about the following (Esperanto) sentences, absurd as they are in English:— La patron mordis la hundo. The father bit the dog. La infanon gratis la kato. The child scratched the cat. La birdojn pafis Johano. The birds shot John. La musojn kaptis la knabo. The mice caught the boy. La kokidon manĝis la onklo. The chicken ate the uncle. La bildon pentris la pentristo. The picture painted the painter. La fiŝojn vendis la fiŝisto. The fish sold the fisherman. In these sentences the subjects are at once seen to be hundo, kato, Johano, knabo, onklo, pentristo, fiŝisto , for the final n in patron, infanon, birdojn, musojn, kokidon, bildon, fiŝojn , distinguishes these words from the subject. This use of n renders clear sentences that are not clear in English. "John loves Mary more than George" may mean "more than John loves George" or "more than George loves Mary." In Esperanto it is quite clear. " Johano amas Marion, pli ol Georgo " means "more than George loves Mary," because "Georgo" is the subject of the second (elliptical) sentence, but " Johano amas Marion, pli ol Georgon " means "more than John loves George," because the final n in Georgon shows this to be not the subject. There are cases, however, in which it is not necessary to add n , the noun or pronoun being distinguished from the subject in another way. Examples are found in the first exercise:— Sur la tero kuŝas ŝtono, On the ground lies a stone. Antaŭ la pordo staras arbo, Before the door stands a tree. Notwithstanding their position, "ground" and "door" are seen to be not the subject, because before them are the words "on," "before," which connect them with the rest of the sentence—it is "on the ground," "before the door." So with other sentences. The words on , before , and others given [in Lesson 26] are called prepositions ( pre = before). The noun or pronoun which follows them can never be the subject of the sentence. Remember, then, that N is added to every noun and pronoun, other than the subject , unless it has a preposition before it. [Footnote: (i.). The explanation usually given for the use of final n is, that n is added to nouns and pronouns (a) in the Accusative Case (the direct object), (b) when the preposition is omitted. The explanation given above seems to me, however, to be much simpler. (ii.). Another use of final n is given later [Lesson 12, Lesson 26] ] When the noun takes n , any adjective which belongs to it must also take n , as, Li donas al mi belan ruĝan floron , He gives me a beautiful red flower. Li donas al mi belajn ruĝajn florojn , He gives me beautiful red flowers. Vocabulary. letero , letter. litero , letter of alphabet. festo , festival, holiday. tago , day. nokto , night. mateno , morning. multaj , many. obstina , obstinate. ĝoja , joyful, joyous. hela , bright, clear. amas , loves. vidas , sees. konas , knows. havas , has, possesses. luno , moon. stelo , star. vintro , winter. forno , stove. edzino , wife. pala , pale. deziras , desires, wishes. eraras , errs, is wrong. vokas , calls. hejtas , heats. hodiaŭ , to-day. malpli , less. kiam , when. kia , what (kind). Mi vidas leonon (leonojn). Mi legas libron (librojn). Mi amas la patron. Mi konas Johanon. La patro ne legas libron, sed li skribas leteron. Mi ne amas obstinajn homojn. Mi deziras al vi bonan tagon, sinjoro. Bonan matenon! Ĝojan feston (mi deziras al vi). Kia ĝoja festo (estas hodiaŭ)! En la tago ni vidas la helan sunon, kaj en la nokto ni vidas la palan lunon kaj la belajn stelojn. Ni havas pli freŝan panon, ol vi. Ne, vi eraras, sinjoro, via pano estas malpli freŝa, ol mia. Ni vokas la knabon, kaj li venos. En la vintro oni hejtas la fornojn. Kiam oni estas riĉa, oni havas multajn amikojn. Li amas min, sed mi lin ne amas. Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn; mi ankaŭ tre amas iliajn (infanojn). Mi ne konas la sinjoron, kiu legas. LESSON 6. We have seen already (Lesson 1) that the words which end in -as express the idea of doing (action) or of being (state), and that they assert that this action or state is going on, or is a custom, at the present time, as Mi vidas , I see; Ŝi estas , She is; Ili suferas , They suffer, they are suffering. To say that the action or state took place at some past time, -is is used, as Mi vidis , I saw; Ŝi estis , She was; Ili suferis , They suffered, they were suffering. To say that the action or state will take place at some time to come, in the future, -os is used, as, Mi vidos , I shall see; Ŝi estos , She will be; Ili suferos , They will suffer, they will be suffering. (Words which assert something, or which express the idea of doing or of being, are called Verbs ). (The root only of the verbs will now be given in the Vocabulary without the termination ). Vocabulary. historio , history. kuzo , cousin. plezuro , pleasure. horloĝo , clock. laboro , work. popolo , a people. virino , woman. aĝo , age. jaro , year. permeso , permission. respond- , answer. far- , do, make. forpel- , drive away. ricev- , receive, get. don- , give. trov- , find. renkont- , meet. salut- , greet, salute. rakont- , relate, tell. vizit- , visit. dorm- , sleep. vek- , wake. serĉ- , seek. fin- , end. tim- , fear. ating- , reach to. surda , deaf. muta , dumb. dolĉa , sweet. tri , three. dek-kvin , fifteen. kial , why. hieraŭ , yesterday. morgaŭ , to-morrow. antaŭ , before. post , after. jam , already. jam ne , no more. ankoraŭ , still, yet. Kial vi ne respondas al mi? Ĉu vi estas surda aŭ muta? Kion vi faras? La knabo forpelis la birdojn. De la patro mi ricevis libron, kaj de la frato mi ricevis plumon. La patro donis al mi dolĉan pomon. Jen estas la pomo, kiun mi trovis. Hieraŭ mi renkontis vian filon, kaj li ĝentile salutis min. Antaŭ tri tagoj mi vizitis vian kuzon, kaj mia vizito faris al li plezuron. Kiam mi venis al li, li dormis, sed mi lin vekis. Mi rakontos al vi historion. Ĉu vi diros al mi la veron? Hodiaŭ estas sabato, kaj morgaŭ estos dimanĉo. Hieraŭ estis vendredo, kaj postmorgaŭ estos lundo. Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon? Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis; kiam mi finos mian laboron, mi serĉos mian horloĝon, sed mi timas, ke mi ĝin jam ne trovos. Se vi nin venkos, la popolo diros, ke nur virinojn vi venkis. Kiam vi atingos la aĝon de dek-kvin jaroj, vi ricevos la permeson. LESSON 7. Confusion is apt to occur in English in the use of the words him, her, it, them; his, hers, its, their , e.g., "John loves his brother and his children." Whose children, John's or his brother's? "The boys brought to their fathers their hats." Whose hats, the boys' or their fathers'? "She gave her sister her book." Whose book? Her own or her sister's? This confusion is avoided in Esperanto by the use of, the pronoun si ( sin ), meaning himself, herself, itself, themselves , and sia, meaning his own, her own, its own, their own. Si ( sin, sia ) refers to the subject of the sentence in which it occurs; therefore in the sentence "John loves his brother and his son," it must be "Johano amas sian fraton kaj sian filon " if it is his own (John's) son, because John is the subject, but we must say " lian filon" if the brother's son is meant. " La knaboj alportis al siaj patroj siajn ĉapelojn " means "The boys brought to their fathers their own (the boys') hats," because "boys" is the subject, but if we mean "the fathers' hats" it must be " iliajn ĉapelojn." "She gave to her sister her book" must be " Ŝi donis al sia fratino sian libron " if it were her own book, but "Ŝi donis al sia fratino ŝian libron " if it were her sister's book. " Li diris al si ..." means "He said to himself," but " Li diris al li " means that he said it to another person. " Si ," " sia ," can only refer to the subject, it cannot be the subject itself or any part of it; therefore we must say " Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn ," because the subject is " Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino ." " Mem, " self, is only used for emphasis, e.g. , " Mi mem ," my (own) self.